NOTE: This is a draft in progress, so that I can get some feedback from early reviewers. It is not yet ready for learning.
There's one final aspect of Bitcoin Scripting that's crucial to unlocking its true power: conditionals allow you create various paths of execution.
You've already seen one conditional in scripts: OP_VERIFY (0x69). It pops the top item on the stack and sees if it's true; if not it ends execution of the script.
Verify is usually incorporated into other opcodes. You've already seen OP_EQUALVERIFY (0xad), OP_CHECKLOCKTIMEVERIFY (0xb1), and OP_CHECKSEQUENCEVERIFY (0xb2). Each of these opcodes does its core action (equal, checklocktime, or checksequence) and then does a verify afterward. The other verify opcodes that you haven't seen are: OP_NUMEQUALVERIFY (0x9d), OP_CHECKSIGVERIFY (0xad), and OP_CHECKMULTISIGVERIFY (0xaf).
So how is OP_VERIFY a conditional? It's the most powerful sort of conditional. Using OP_VERIFY, if a condition is true, the Script continues executing, else the Script exits. This is how you check conditions that are absolutely required for a Script to succeed. For example, the P2PKH script (OP_DUP OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHash> OP_EQUALVERIFY OP_CHECKSIG) has two required conditions: (1) that the supplied public key match the public-key hash; and (2) that the supplied signature match that public key. An OP_EQUALVERIFY is used for the check of the public key and the public-key hash because it's an absolutely required condition. You don't want the script to continue on if that fails.
You may notice there's no OP_VERIFY at the end of this (or most any) script, despite the final condition being required as well. That's because Bitcoin effectively does an OP_VERIFY at the very end of each Script, to ensure that the final stack result is true. You don't want to do an OP_VERIFY before the end of the script, because you need to leave something on the stack to be tested!
The other major conditional in Bitcoin Script is the classic OP_IF (0x63) / OP_ELSE (0x67) / OP_ENDIF (0x68). This is typical flow control: if OP_IF detects a true statement, it executes the block under it; otherwise, if there's an OP_ELSE, it executes that; and OP_ENDIF marks the end of the final block.
WARNING: These conditionals are technically opcodes too, but as with small numbers, we're going to leave the
OP_prefix off for brevity and clarity. Thus we'll writeIF,ELSE, andENDIFinstead ofOP_IF,OP_ELSE, andOP_ENDIF.
There are two big catches to conditionals. They make it harder to read and assess scripts if you're not careful.
First, the IF conditional checks the truth of what's before it (which is to say what's in the stack), not what's after it.
Second, the IF conditional tends to be in the locking script and what it's checking tends to be in the unlocking script.
Of course, you might say, that's how Bitcoin Script works. Conditionals use reverse Polish notation and they adopt the standard unlocking/locking paradigm, just like everything else in Bitcoin Scripting. That's all true, but it also goes contrary to the standard way we read IF/ELSE conditionals in other programming languages; thus, it's easy to unconsciously read Bitcoin conditionals wrong.
Consider the following code: IF OP_DUP OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHashA> ELSE OP_DUP OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHashB> ENDIF OP_EQUALVERIFY OP_CHECKSIG .
Looking at conditionals in prefix notation might lead you to read this as:
IF (OP_DUP) THEN
OP_HASH160
OP_PUSHDATA <pubKeyHashA>
ELSE
OP_DUP
OP_HASH160
OP_PUSHDATA <pubKeyHashB>
ENDIF
OP_EQUALVERIFY
OP_CHECKSIG
So, you might think, if the OP_DUP is successful, then we get to do the first block, else the second. But that doesn't make any sense! Why wouldn't the OP_DUP succeed?!
And, indeed, it doesn't make any sense, because we accidentally read the statement using the wrong notation. The correct reading of this is:
IF
OP_DUP
OP_HASH160
OP_PUSHDATA <pubKeyHashA>
ELSE
OP_DUP
OP_HASH160
OP_PUSHDATA <pubKeyHashB>
ENDIF
OP_EQUALVERIFY
OP_CHECKSIG
The True or False statement is placed on the stack prior to running the IF, then the correct block of code is run based on that result.
This particular example code is intended as a poor man's 1-of-2 multisignature. The owner of <privKeyA> would put <signatureA> <pubKeyA> True in his locking script, while the owner of <privKeyB> would put <signatureB> <pubKeyB> False in her locking script. That trailing True or False is what's checked by the IF/ELSE statement. It tells the script which public-key hash to check against, then the OP_EQUALVERIFY and the OP_CHECKSIG at the end do the real work.
With a core understanding of Bitcoin conditionals in hand, we're now ready to run through a script. We're going to do so by creating a slight variant of our poor man's 1-of-2 multisignature where our users don't have to remember if they're True or False. Instead, if need be, the script checks both public-key hashes, just requiring one success:
OP_DUP OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHashA> OP_EQUAL
IF
OP_CHECKSIG
ELSE
OP_DUP OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHashB> OP_EQUALVERIFY OP_CHECKSIG
ENDIF
Remember your reverse Polish notation! That IF statement if referring to the OP_EQUAL before it, not the OP_CHECKSIG after it!
Here's how it actally runs if unlocked with <signatureA> <pubKeyA>:
Script: <signatureA> <pubKeyA> OP_DUP OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHashA> OP_EQUAL IF OP_CHECKSIG ELSE OP_DUP OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHashB> OP_EQUALVERIFY OP_CHECKSIG ENDIF
Stack: [ ]
First, we put constants on the stack:
Script: OP_DUP OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHashA> OP_EQUAL IF OP_CHECKSIG ELSE OP_DUP OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHashB> OP_EQUALVERIFY OP_CHECKSIG ENDIF
Stack: [ <signatureA> <pubKeyA> ]
Then we run the first few, obvious commands, OP_DUP and OP_HASH160 and push another constant:
Script: OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHashA> OP_EQUAL IF OP_CHECKSIG ELSE OP_DUP OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHashB> OP_EQUALVERIFY OP_CHECKSIG ENDIF
Running: <pubKeyA> OP_DUP
Stack: [ <signatureA> <pubKeyA> <pubKeyA> ]
Script: <pubKeyHashA> OP_EQUAL IF OP_CHECKSIG ELSE OP_DUP OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHashB> OP_EQUALVERIFY OP_CHECKSIG ENDIF
Running: <pubKeyA> OP_HASH160
Stack: [ <signatureA> <pubKeyA> <pubKeyHashA> ]
Script: OP_EQUAL IF OP_CHECKSIG ELSE OP_DUP OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHashB> OP_EQUALVERIFY OP_CHECKSIG ENDIF
Stack: [ <signatureA> <pubKeyA> <pubKeyHashA> <pubKeyHashA> ]
Next we run the OP_EQUAL, which is what's going to feed the IF:
Script: IF OP_CHECKSIG ELSE OP_DUP OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHashB> OP_EQUALVERIFY OP_CHECKSIG ENDIF
Running: <pubKeyHashA> <pubKeyHashA> OP_EQUAL
Stack: [ <signatureA> <pubKeyA> True ]
Now the IF runs, and since there's a True, it only runs the first block, eliminating all the rest:
Script: OP_CHECKSIG
Running: True IF
Stack: [ <signatureA> <pubKeyA> ]
And the OP_CHECKSIG will end up True as well:
Script:
Running: <signatureA> <pubKeyA> OP_CHECKSIG
Stack: [ True ]
Here's how it actally runs if unlocked with <signatureB> <pubKeyB>:
Script: <signatureB> <pubKeyB> OP_DUP OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHashA> OP_EQUAL IF OP_CHECKSIG ELSE OP_DUP OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHashB> OP_EQUALVERIFY OP_CHECKSIG ENDIF
Stack: [ ]
First, we put constants on the stack:
Script: OP_DUP OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHashA> OP_EQUAL IF OP_CHECKSIG ELSE OP_DUP OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHashB> OP_EQUALVERIFY OP_CHECKSIG ENDIF
Stack: [ <signatureB> <pubKeyB> ]
Then we run the first few, obvious commands, OP_DUP and OP_HASH160 and push another constant:
Script: OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHashA> OP_EQUAL IF OP_CHECKSIG ELSE OP_DUP OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHashB> OP_EQUALVERIFY OP_CHECKSIG ENDIF
Running: <pubKeyB> OP_DUP
Stack: [ <signatureB> <pubKeyB> <pubKeyB> ]
Script: <pubKeyHashA> OP_EQUAL IF OP_CHECKSIG ELSE OP_DUP OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHashB> OP_EQUALVERIFY OP_CHECKSIG ENDIF
Running: <pubKeyB> OP_HASH160
Stack: [ <signatureB> <pubKeyB> <pubKeyHashB> ]
Script: OP_EQUAL IF OP_CHECKSIG ELSE OP_DUP OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHashB> OP_EQUALVERIFY OP_CHECKSIG ENDIF
Stack: [ <signatureB> <pubKeyB> <pubKeyHashB> <pubKeyHashA> ]
Next we run the OP_EQUAL, which is what's going to feed the IF:
Script: IF OP_CHECKSIG ELSE OP_DUP OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHashB> OP_EQUALVERIFY OP_CHECKSIG ENDIF
Running: <pubKeyHashB> <pubKeyHashA> OP_EQUAL
Stack: [ <signatureB> <pubKeyB> False ]
Whoop! The result was False because <pubKeyHashB> does not equal <pubKeyHashA>. Now when the IF runs, it collapses down to just the ELSE statement:
Script: OP_DUP OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHashB> OP_EQUALVERIFY OP_CHECKSIG
Running: False IF
Stack: [ <signatureB> <pubKeyB> ]
Afterward, we go through the whole rigamarole again, starting with another OP_DUP, but eventually testing against the other pubKeyHash:
Script: OP_HASH160 <pubKeyHashB> OP_EQUALVERIFY OP_CHECKSIG
Running: <pubKeyB> OP_DUP
Stack: [ <signatureB> <pubKeyB> <pubKeyB> ]
Script: <pubKeyHashB> OP_EQUALVERIFY OP_CHECKSIG
Running: <pubKeyB> OP_HASH160
Stack: [ <signatureB> <pubKeyB> <pubKeyHashB> ]
Script: OP_EQUALVERIFY OP_CHECKSIG
Stack: [ <signatureB> <pubKeyB> <pubKeyHashB> <pubKeyHashB> ]
Script:OP_CHECKSIG
Running: <pubKeyHashB> <pubKeyHashB> OP_EQUALVERIFY
Stack: [ <signatureB> <pubKeyB> ]
Script:
Running: <signatureB> <pubKeyB> OP_CHECKSIG
Stack: [ True ]
This probably isn't nearly as efficient as a true Bitcoin multisig, but it's a good example of how results pushed onto the stack by previous tests can be used to feed future conditionals. In this case, it's the failure of the first signature which tells the conditional that it should go check the second one.
There are a few other conditionals of note. The big one is OP_NOTIF (0x64), which is the opposite of OP_IF: it executes the following block if the top item is False. An ELSE can be placed with it, which as usual is executed if the first block is not executed. You still end with OP_ENDIF.
There's also an OP_IFDUP (0x73), which duplicates the top stack item only if it's not 0.
These options are used much less than the main IF/ELSE/ENDIF construction.
Conditionals in Bitcoin Script allow you to halt the script (using OP_VERIFY) or to choose different branches of execution (using OP_IF). However, reading OP_IF can be a bit tricky. Remember that it's the item pushed onto the stack before the OP_IF is run that controls its execution; that item will typically be part of the unlocking script (or else a direct result of items in the unlocking script).
What is the power of conditionals? Script Conditionals are the final major building block in Bitcoin Script. They're what are required to turn simple, static Bitcoin Scripts into complex, dynamic Bitcoin Scripts that can evaluate differently based on different times, different circumstances, or different user inputs. In other words, they're the final basis of smart contracts.
Continue "Expanding Bitcoin Scripts" with §10.2: Using Other Script Commands.